Module 4 - Costing Educational Technologies
The topic for this module was costing educational technologies. Much of the reading centered on chapters 1-6 of Bates (2005) text, Technology, e-learning and distance education. I found the reading quite interesting as the different types of media were dissected. Here is what I was able to gleam from the chapters:
Chapter 1, "Emerging trends: convergence and specialization in distance education"
· “The choice of technology should be driven not by its novelty but by the needs of the learners and the context in which they are learning” (p. 3). Simply saying do not choose media just because.
· “A feature of distance education institutions is that they are deliberately designed and structured to exploit the cost and educational benefits of technology” (p. 4). Absolutely. Cost comes into play, but so does the benefits of technology. In particular Bates states about technology “…provide alternative means of high quality education or training for those who either cannot take conventional, campus-based programs, or chose not to” (p. 6).
· “In a volatile job market (especially in knowledge-based industries), individuals feel the pressure to continue their education” (p. 11). True, we are lifelong learners.
· The jury is still out of the cost-effectiveness of E-learning (p. 12). Humm.. I think this statement is dated. It has been proven that there is cost-effectiveness of E-learning.
· “The needs of students who study entirely at a distance are quite different from those who are taught on campus or in classes. Distance students require different approaches to course design, development, and learner support. Classroom teachers incorporating online teaching can benefit from some of the approaches developed for distance learners, but these need to be adapted to a classroom context. Similarly, distance educators can benefit from some of the E-learning applications in classrooms. Nevertheless, whether students are fully distant or not, the main issues in E-learning are quality standard, teacher and student workloads and costs” (p.16). Quite a mouthful, but mostly accurate. I am not sure about quite different in the first sentence. DE can profit from F2F techniques and F2F can benefit from DE strategies.
· “The value of distance education us its ability to reach learners not well served by conventional educational institutions. The value of technology in teaching is its ability to meet better the newly emerging educational needs of an informational society, and to improve the quality of learning” (p. 16). Another good point(s).
Chapter 2, "The impact of technology on the organization of distance education"
· “Institutional reorganization due to technology change applies as much to distance teaching organizations as to conventional institutions” (p. 17). Absolutely. Technology has the potential to bring new methods of teaching and learning to the masses.
· Bates (2005) talks on failed commercial operations and proclaims that the cost of learner support seen to have been underestimated in many of the business plans. Specifically, "The main misunderstanding was to believe that e-learning was primarily about modifying content. Although content is important, it constitutes probably less than 50% of the operational costs of a successful high quality online distance deduction program. In particular, we shall see that in the education sector interaction between students and teachers are essential." Furthermore, the business models of the prestigious universities were developed on the basis of keeping their main operation, and in particular their tenured research faculty, isolated from distance education, what one might call the quarantining of distance education" (p. 38) . This is most interesting to read as I am taking OMDE 608 and the strong emphasis is on learner support to make not only the students, but also the institution successful.
· “While there is convergence between distance learning and E-learning in terms of pedagogy, and to some extent administrative systems as they go web-based for on-campus students, marketing, advising, credit transfer, prior learning assessment, learner support, and credentialing requirements remain distinct for distance learners” (p. 39). Humm.. not so sure about this one. It seems that universities have to be all around flexible for lifelong learners, whether it be for the traditional student or the returning senior citizen.
· “Although print and broadcasting remain important for many distance education operations, the Web in particular has transformed not only the pedagogy of distance education, but also its organizational structure” (p. 40). Yes, as mentioned prior, technology has the propensity to open up new doors for the masses.
· “Distance Education remains a distinct and dynamic part of the education and training system” (p. 40). I believe this is dependent on the area. Thus, is there a need to operate from a distance or are the students in relatively close proximately?
· Bates (2005) makes an interesting statement, "History suggests that new technologies do not necessarily replace older technologies. Despite the Internet, other media such as newspapers, radio, and television are still active the thriving. To survive, the older media had to change and hence they have become more focused and specialized” (p. 41). I agree as a mixture of multimedia can result in high levels of interactivity between the learner and the learning material.
· “We need some form of analytical framework to enable skilled decision making about the appropriate use of media and technology in Distance Education and in E-learning” (p. 41). True. The decision to use technology is based on many parameters.
· Some definitions:
o One way communication= Broadcast
o Two way communication= Communicative
o Synchronous= Real Time
o Asynchronous= Anytime
· “The WWW is the only technology that combines text, audio, and video, all four structural characteristics of technology: broadcast, two-way communication, and synchronous and asynchronous communication. Thus a major reason why the web has such potential is that its media and structural characteristics provide more options for teaching and learning” (p. 45). How true, thus defining the popularity of the WWW.
· 3 decision making scenarios (p. 47) for selecting educational technologies:
1) Do nothing- the reason to use technology is not clear, or there is a well-judged recognition of ignorance or there are too many choices. Hence doing nothing is safer.
2) Sympathetic anarchy- an entity leaves it to the individual, enthusiastic teacher/trainer to use whatever technology they can get their hands on. There is a potential for technology to end up in cyber-cupboards-un maintained websites.
3) Monomedia mania- investing heavily in a single technology for teaching and training. It is usually driven by the decision to go for the latest or most sophisticated technology available at the time of decision making.
· As I read about the Web, there are some distinct disadvantages (p. 49):
o Lack of access for certain groups of learners
o High cost in some context
o Possibility of dehumanizing the learning context
· Bates (2005) discusses the ACTIONS model (p. 49) which highlights the importance of considering the level of technology available to learner when selecting technology. ACTIONS stand for Access, Costs, Teaching and learning, Interactivity, Organizational issues, Novelty, and Speed.
· The learning theories of behaviorism, cognitive, humanistic, and constructivism were discussed and Bates (2005) notes taking a position on learning theories, "The need to make a conscious choice of learning theory is a profoundly practical issue with respect to the selection of technologies for teaching” (p. 56). Absolutely. Instructors have their own mode(s) of teaching, so naturally they need to follow that path of media choices that will complement them.
· Here is just an interesting thought to ponder, "Machine based education- to what extent does a technology facilitate interpersonal communication?" (p. 56)
· Olson and Bruner (1974) argue that learning involves two different aspects: firstly acquiring knowledge of facts, principles, ideas, concepts, events, relationships, rules and laws; and secondly using or working on that knowledge to develop skills. Knowledge can be considered the appropriate application of skills to a particular context area (p. 56).
· Media differ to the extent to which they can represent different kinds of content, because they vary in the symbol systems (text, sound still images, moving pictures, etc.) that they can use to encode information (p. 56). Media can also differ in their ability to handle concrete or abstract knowledge. Abstract knowledge is handled primarily through language (p. 57)
· Lastly for this chapter, it is important to note feedback, specifically, feedback is an important component of interaction (p. 59)
Chapter 3, "Selecting and using technologies in distance education"
The chapter begins by introducing two rather different contexts for interaction- both important in learning
1. Individual- interaction of the learner with the learning material
2. Social- interaction between 2 or more people (p. 60)
· Here is an interesting thought by Bates (2005), “The character of good distance teaching resembles that of a guided conversation aimed at learning… the distance study course and the non contiguous communication typical of distance education seen as the instruments of a conversation-like interaction between the student on the one hand and the tutor counselor on the other” (p.60). I suppose what he is saying that the interaction should be so seamless that it doesn't appear to be from a distance. The Internet has the potential to do this with its two-way asynchronous communications, allowing the student to interact directly and flexibly with the teacher or other students.
· Social interaction is not necessarily time or place dependent, or even dependent on the teacher, if peer groups are used (p. 61). How true, as learning does not have to be dependent on the teacher.
· If learners cannot control adequately the learning environment, the technology will quickly lose its appeal (p. 63). This is so true even for me. If I cannot figure out how to do the technology, I become frustrated and at times, switch do doing something else that is less stressful. Along with this go reliability. If the technology breaks down or ‘crashes’, (63) it can severely disrupt the learning process. Which leads to the quote by Bates (2005), "Interaction and user-friendliness are therefore strong discriminators between different technologies" (p. 63).
· Bates makes the following revelation about using new technologies, "There is much risk in being too early into a new technology. Software may not be fully tested and reliable, or the company supporting the new technology may become bankrupt. Students are not guinea pigs, and reliable and sustainable service is more important to them than the glitz and glamour of untried technology. Thus it is better to be at the leading edge, just behind the first wave of innovation, rather than at the bleeding edge" (p. 65). As mentioned before, we should not use technology for technologies sake.
· When it comes to making the choice of which technology to implement, Bates (2005) makes the strategic comment, "Technology will vary accordingly to geography, local technological infrastructures (availability and pricing of internet services) and educational structures" (p. 66).
Chapter 4, "Print"
As we discuss print and correspondence, I have very much taken print for granted, thinking that it is always the old standby, not considering all it encompasses. Bates (2005) zooms in on some important points both good and bad:
· Print has considerable advantages in terms of access, because of portability, the ubiquity of the mail service, relatively low delivery costs, and a well developed infrastructure for marketing, publishing, and distribution (p. 69). A great point as print is still very much alive today.
· A major weakness of print it its limitation in assisting students who have failed to understand parts of the text. Although good print design tries to reduce the extent of misunderstanding, there will always be occasions where alternative explanations or a different approach are required for those students having difficulties. In other instances, students are often unaware of their failure to understand, and this is often where an intervention for a teacher is most necessary (p. 71). An important point to make as not everyone in the college arena is the best of readers, specifically reading for comprehension.
· Another weakness of print it is difficulty in providing feedback for questions that have a variety of acceptable responses, or which require complex or elaborate responses. Print cannot challenge of 'discuss' the appropriateness of student's responses to in-text questions. Furthermore students can easily go to the printed 'feedback', where answers or 'discussion' of the activity is provided, without actively engaging in the exercise. 'In-text' questions or self-assessment exercises may be too frequent or too trivial to stimulate 'deep' processing. Feedback through print is also less appropriate from ore practical forms of learning requiring the development of social or psychomotor skills (p. 71-72).
· There are still two main advantages in providing students with existing printed material, rather than transferring it for downloading by computer. First it is cheaper for students to buy printed material and two, from the institutional perspective, copyright permission is often easier to obtain for print (p. 72). In essence, not all students can afford the latest and greatest in technology.
· Once a printed course is finalized and delivered, it is extremely difficult and expensive to correct or change (p. 85). How true - imagine the costs of getting a book reprinted.
· Print needs to be supplemented by some form of tutoring, in order to provide two-way interaction (p. 86). True, particularly for interpretation and feedback.
· A major difference between traditional publishing and publishing for distance education is the role of the instructional designer. This distinction has risen because in distance education, learners may need to be totally independent, and cannot necessarily fall back on the teacher for help in understanding or motivation. Thus, distance education texts have to combine both information giving and direct teaching. The responsibility therefore for learning is shifted away from the face-to-face teacher to the teaching material itself. Converting the 'texts' handed over by subject experts into printed material suitable for distance education requires more than just the traditional skills of a publishing editor (p. 87). I have not really given this much thought till this reading. Texts nowadays have to not only present the material, but present it in such a manner that it is self-explanatory - a tough task to accomplish.
· Despite the major in roads of the internet and WWW into distance education, print is, and will remain a most important technology (p. 89). For me, I have always believed that print is by tradition a powerful medium. Indeed it is, in the appropriate context as defined by Bates (2005).
· In looking at print and the learning approaches it impacts, I found these thoughts by Bates (2005) interesting. Print then can vary in how it is structured to encourage interaction. Highly structured, 'controlled' texts, interspersed with very frequent and explicit activities, and would represent a more behaviorist approach to learning. Dense, loosely structured text, with few headings, would represent a more open, interpretive or constructivist approach to learning. Indeed, little guidance other than assessment questions, which may be few and require broad-ranging answers, may be given to the student as to how to interpret the material. The choice of approach will depend on the nature of the subject matter, the experience and previous level of education of the learner, and the type of learning that the teacher believes to be important. Print then is an extremely flexible teaching material, and can be designed to suit a variety of teaching approaches and purposes. (p. 71)
· Bates (2005) acknowledges the technical developments such as the introduction of large-screen monitors, text messaging, and better quality low-cost colour monitors, improved software, such as the printed document format (pdf), and the increased portability of computers may change students' preferences. Yet, he goes on to say, However, there are still two main advantages in providing students with existing printed material, rather than transferring it for downloading by computer. First it is cheaper for students to buy printed material and two, from the institutional perspective, copyright permission is often easier to obtain for print (p. 72.)
· There are three different aspects to quality in printed distance teaching materials:
1. The quality of the academic content, in terms of comprehensiveness, balance and accuracy (content).
2. The quality of the educational design, in terms of clarity of objectives, the way the content is organized and structured, and the quality of student activities and assessment (instructional design).
3. The quality of layout, graphics and print presentation (print design). (85)
Chapter 5, "Television and video"
With television and video cassettes, there is much to consider. Bates (2005) makes the following comment, " There is a common assumption by many academics that print is the intellectually superior medium- that TV, by comparison, encourages children to be passive mindless, and unimaginative" (p. 69). How true if a child is in front of a TV 24/7 with video games being played without end. In opposition, through was the popular TV show Sesame Street. Do you remember tall, yellow Big Bird singing and dancing? Sesame Street, has been distributed for over four decades. It is the longest running children’s program in American history which can be viewed by the masses in over 140 countries, thus being noted as the largest informal educator in the world. So taking into account the newest mass communication technology coupled with today’s generations untapped potential, certainly one can speculate the educational potential and effective paradigm for learning in the 21st century, thus proving many in the academic realm incorrect. Reference: Shuler, C. (2009). Pockets of potential. Retrieved from http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/publications/index.html
· "Decision makers and particularly politicians often underestimate the costs and overestimate the educational potential of tv" (p. 91). How true as Bates (2005) also comments, "The use of a particular medium must be questioned if it cannot deliver the learning materials to most of the target students" (p.97). Simply put, know your audience.
· Television is a rich technology, in that it can combine all the major forms of symbolic representation: words, pictures, movement, sound, and representation of events as they occur over time. Television can of course be used merely to relay a lecture or a talking head. It is important then to distinguish between television that exploits its full range of presentational qualities, and television that is merely another way of delivering the lectures (p.100). Thus, do the expense of producing make as much use of the technology as possible. There are arguments though for trying whenever possible to break away from the lecture format. Unless there is a great deal of interaction between individuals students and the lecturer, lecture-based instructional television tends to result in what Marton and Saljo (1976) call 'surface processing', that is, learning focuses on recall and reproduction of what has been taught, rather than on analysis, questioning or reworking of the learning material: 'deep processing', in Marton and Saljos terms (p. 100). In order then to assess the appropriateness of the televised lecture, the question that needs to be answered first is: what are the teaching objectives? If the teaching objective is to achieve more than just the efficient transmission of information, then it is likely to be worth making the effort to exploit the unique presentational characteristics of television (p. 100).
· As well as the ability of television to deliver learning material to large numbers of students, to sites far removed from the classroom or lecture hall, there are presentational characteristics of television and video that are important for education. Perhaps the most obvious is the ability of video to bring resources to home-based learners that would not be possible through any other medium, or even through direct experience, such as scientific experiments, case-study material of social and technological events, field-visits (particularly to foreign countries), and dynamic presentation of ideas through animation and graphics (101). How true. In addition, video can generate appropriate audio-visual images linked to otherwise difficult abstract concepts (p.101).
· From a theorist perspective, cognitive psychologists such as Bruner and Piaget have argued that full understanding and internalization of abstract concepts need to be preceded by some form of concrete experience. It is often difficult to provide this physical experience directly for distance learners, but video can act as an effective substitute (p. 101). Great idea.
· Because television can combine and integrate concrete images with words, it can act as a bridge between the operational (concrete) and formal (more abstract) stages of learning (p. 101). Another great idea.
· On an opposing note, Bates (2005) makes the following negative comment about TV, "a relaxing entertainment media it is hardly surprising than many adults and children, have great difficulty in learning from TV" (p.103). This statement has substance. Specifically Bates (2005) follows by stating this, "While the presentational qualities of broadcast television make it valuable to learners, its main instructional weaknesses are its lack of interactivity and its inconvenience" (p. 105).
Chapter 6, "Radio, audio cassettes and compact disc players"
I really haven't given a lot of thought to radio as being a learning aid. Likewise in my mind I considered cassettes obsolete until reading this chapter. Bates (2005) makes the following points, some good, some bad, some open to interpretation.
· "Audio is perhaps the most undervalued of all the media" (p. 115). True, yet, it can still be an effective learning tool, particularly for those that are visually impaired.
· "Radio is accessible to more people than any other single technology" (p. 115). This is news to me, but makes perfect sense (third-world countires).
· "Despite difficulties, radio is generally an extremely accessible technology for teaching, and can reach certain target groups, such as the illiterate and very poor, better than other technologies" (p. 115).
· "It should be noted though that radio's publicity value is not high when transmissions are restricted to late at night or early in the morning" (p. 116).
· Useful features of cassettes are stop, rewind and repeat (p. 118). Repeat especially to reinforce the material being presented.
· Some roles of cassettes:
o Talking students through parts of printed material
o Talking about real objects that need to be observed
o Talking students through practical procedures
o Analyzing human interaction
o Providing feedback on student activities (p. 119)
· "It is likely that radio is a more acceptable teaching medium for cultures with a strong oral tradition" (p. 119).
· "One should not underestimate radio's power to stimulate the imagination or provoke strong student support" (p. 120). True, think of days gone by as radio was the latest and greatest, and tv was not even in the picture (no pun intended).
· "Cassettes can be more narrowly targeted, designed to meet just the needs of enrolled students, or to encompass a specific teaching approach" (p. 120)
· "Well designed audio cassettes and CDs, when combined with print and other materials, can result in high levels of interactivity between the learner and the learning material" (p. 121). True, possibly scaffolding.
· "Newer technologies such as television (for visual presentation), compact discs (for student control), and Web-based learning are stronger instructionally. Thus, in deciding to use radio, a very careful assessment needs to be made of its benefits and weaknesses for the particular target group it is to serve" (p. 126).
Reference: Bates, A. W. (2005). Technology, e-learning and distance education. London New York : Routledge.
